6See generally Rio Treaty, supra note 5. But see Federico Fabbrini, Do NATO Obligations Trump European Budgetary Constraints?, 9 Harv. Mug shots taken of the “NATO 3” after their arrests (From Left to Right: Brian Church, Brent Betterly, Jared Chase 98Relations with the United Nations, North Atlantic Treaty Org. pmbl. (June 6, 2017), https://www.nato.int/cps/em/natohq/topics_84112.htm. This seems to be the case in relation to 2% and 20% targets contained in the Wales Summit Declaration. Also, partner nations gain access to NATO education courses, trainings, and exercises. The report of the “Three Wise Men” was a revolutionary document as it decisively reaffirmed the non-military nature of the otherwise military Alliance by establishing the basis for political, scientific, economic and technological collaboration within the Alliance. 67 The very first STANAGs recognized the importance of a common language for interoperability purposes. In this respect, interoperability is another very important capability envisioned under Article 3 of the Washington Treaty. The Parties will contribute toward the further development of peaceful and friendly international relations by strengthening their free institutions, by bringing about a better understanding of the principles upon which these institutions are founded, and by promoting conditions of stability and well-being. After the Treaty has been in force for ten years, or at any time thereafter, the Parties shall, if any of them so requests, consult together for the purpose of reviewing the Treaty, having regard for the factors then affecting peace and security in the North Atlantic area, including the development of universal as well as regional arrangements under the Charter of the United Nations for the maintenance of international peace and security. on Non-Military Cooperation in NATO, ¶ 61, NATO Doc. They are determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilisation of their peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law. See NATO Standardization Office, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (June 9, 2017), https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_124879.htm. 18Id. Id. NATO’s interoperability policy defines the notion as ‘‘the ability of Allies to act together coherently, effectively and efficiently to achieve tactical, operational and strategic objectives.’’ 64Interoperability: Connecting NATO Forces, North Atlantic Treaty Org. and the second Joint Declaration, respectively. According to the then United States Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, the Washington Treaty was supposed to provide a framework for strengthening “the morale and positive elements on which true peace depends.” 4Id. For the purpose of Article 5, an armed attack on one or more of the Parties is deemed to include an armed attack: This Treaty does not affect, and shall not be interpreted as affecting in any way the rights and obligations under the Charter of the Parties which are members of the United Nations, or the primary responsibility of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security. In such cases, dialogue among national and NATO legal advisers helps to clarify the different legal views of different Allies and may lead to a more uniform or common legal understanding or legal regime. WASHINGTON (AP) — The Trump administration on Monday imposed sanctions on its NATO ally Turkey over its purchase of a Russian air defense system, setting the stage for further confrontation between the two nations as President-elect Joe Biden prepares to take office. 13, 2012), https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/news_85161.htm. The reference to “the security of the North Atlantic area” turned out to be deemed inappropriate to the founding Allies, as they believed that “self-help and mutual aid” apply to the Treaty as a whole, and not only to “the security of the North Atlantic area.” 32Id. 12The Drafting of the Treaty, supra note 3, at 9. 243. Defense spending by NATO’s European members hit a five-year high last year, as measured by a proportion of GDP, but still only six countries, plus the United States, met a U.S.-driven target of spending 2 percent of economic output on defense, according to the alliance’s latest annual report released Thursday.. The Treaty came into force on 24 August 1949, after the deposition of the ratifications of all signatory states. Ability to make decisions, communicate and enforce them in a crisis. It commended Allies to maintain healthy economies and to promote international trade. . Each Party declares that none of the international engagements now in force between it and any other of the Parties or any third State is in conflict with the provisions of this Treaty, and undertakes not to enter into any international engagement in conflict with this Treaty. 102NATO, OSCE, https://www.osce.org/partnerships/111485. The fourth draft further removed the words “use every” before the word “endeavour,” making it: “the Parties will endeavor . †This commentary is written in author’s personal capacity and may not reflect agreed upon policy or views of the NATO International Staff or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 9, 2017), https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49276.htm. 60 Press Release, NATO, Brussels Summit Declaration, (July 11, 2018). 8, 2017) https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_142025.htm?selectedLocale=en. 20Report of the Committee of Three, North Atlantic Treaty Org., (Oct. 5, 2017), https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_65237.htm. 95See Joint Declaration by the President of the European Council, the President of the European Commission, and the Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, supra note 93; Joint Declaration on EU-NATO Cooperation, supra note 94. With the end of the Cold War, however, the ownership of the state infrastructure began to shift steadily in the hands of the private sector. 63 Jan Techau, The Politics of 2 Percent: NATO and the Security Vacuum in Europe, Carnegie Europe (Sep. 2, 2015), https://carnegieeurope.eu/2015/09/02/politics-of-2-percent-nato-and-security-vacuum-in-europe-pub-61139. facilities, manpower, productive capacity, or military equipment.” 42Id. 53 See Alexander Mattelaer, US Leadership and NATO: Revisiting the Principles of NATO Burden-Sharing, 46 Parameters 25, 25 (2016). See North Atlantic Treaty, supra note 2. (1949) at 10. 26Id. Resilient energy, 75 Stable and reliable energy supply, the diversification of import routes, suppliers and energy resources, and the interconnectivity of energy networks are of crucial importance, see Press Release, NATO, Warsaw Summit Communiqué, (July 9, 2016). Although the Ally does not have a proper armed force, it is nonetheless highly valued within the Alliance especially because of its strategic geographical location, solid infrastructure, 51 The Keflavik Air Base is used by Allied navies for military exercises and air policing (surveillance) among other things. 45Boosting NATO’s Presence in the East and Southeast, North Atlantic Treaty Org. Finally, the term “resist” is a matter of interpretation. Econ. 1 The author is grateful to Mr. Steven Hill, NATO IS Legal Adviser and Director of NATO IS Office of Legal Affairs, as well as to Ms. Lone Kjelgaard and Mrs. Nadia Marsan, NATO Senior Assistant Legal Advisers, for their precious advice, comments, and suggestions on various legal issues examined in this commentary. While STANAGs might be deemed crucial for achieving interoperability, they do not have binding force on Allies. 77 Ralph D. Thiele, Game Changer: Cyber Security in the Naval Domain, 530 Inst. Press Release, European Council, Joint Declaration on EU-NATO Cooperation (July 10, 2018). It is indeed important to emphasize that the Washington Treaty aims for preservation of peace and security worldwide, not only within the North Atlantic area. The heart of NATO is expressed in Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty, in which the signatory members agree that. 73 Press Release, NATO, Commitment to Enhance Resilience (July 8, 2016). Press Release, European Commission, Joint Declaration by the President of the European Council, the President of the European Commission, and the Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (July 8, 2016). “In order more effectively to achieve the objectives of this Treaty, the Parties, separately and jointly, by means of continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid, will maintain and develop their individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack.” 27 North Atlantic Treaty, supra note 2, art. They will seek to eliminate conflict in their international economic policies and will encourage economic collaboration between any or all of them. NATO and the 5G challenge 30 Sep. 2020 The 5G controversy came to a head in early 2019. 83 Wales Summit Declaration, supra note 57. and to provide cyber defense assistance to Allies upon request, 82 NATO might assist an Ally victim of a cyber-attack by deploying the so-called “Rapid Reaction Teams” which consist of cyber defense experts specifically trained to mitigate harmful and adverse consequences of cyber-attacks. 71See generally Marten Zwanenburg, International Humanitarian Law Interoperability in Multinational Operations, 95 Int’l Rev. 3. In order more effectively to achieve the objectives of this Treaty, the Parties, separately and jointly, by means of continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid, will maintain and develop their individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack. Soon after the Washington Treaty came into force, the U.S. provided assistance to European Allies under the so-called military assistance program. Id. The following provides a summary of this cooperation as it reflects the response by NATO to strategic and geo-political changes that have occurred over time. 48Resilience and Article 3, North Atlantic Treaty Org. Many Allies became concerned about the security of future intra-Alliance commercial and military communications, primarily – but not only – because of risks posed by non-Allied suppliers. 3. 13 Jamie Shea, What can we Learn Today from the ‘Three Wise Men’?, NATO Rev. at 28, 33. Its commitment clause defines the casus foederis. 3 NATO, North Atlantic Pact: The Drafting of the Treaty, PACT D-6/1, 8 (Mar. Among other things, they agreed to allot sufficient financial resources to develop national cyber defense capabilities, to foster cyber defense education, training and exercises, to improve understanding of cyber threats and to improve interaction among relevant national cyber defense stakeholders. (Jun. In addition to peace-support and peacekeeping operations, NATO-U.N. cooperation covers a wide variety of fields, such as crisis assessment and management, civil-military cooperation, training and education, corruption in the defense sector, mine action, mitigation of the threat posed by improvised explosive devices, civilian capabilities, promotion of the role of women in peace and security, protection of civilians, including children in armed conflict, sexual and gender-based violence, arms control and non-proliferation and the fight against terrorism. 37Id. The state administration was solely and exclusively responsible for maintaining a well-functioning infrastructure together with sufficient civil resources. In this regard, Iceland is a perfect example. The present essay presents a commentary on Articles 2 and 3 of the Washington Treaty. 27 North Atlantic Treaty, supra note 2, art. (Feb. 2018), https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2018_02/20180213_1802-factsheet-cyber-defence-en.pdf. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an alliance of 28 countries that border the North Atlantic Ocean. 78 Wales Summit Declaration, supra note 57 ¶¶ 72–73. The move comes at a delicate time in relations between Washington and Ankara. 21 N. Atlantic Treaty Org. Rose Gottemoeller, a former deputy secretary-general of NATO, is Payne distinguished lecturer at Stanford University. The NATO Communications and Information Agency is entrusted with the protection of NATO’s networks. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited as soon as possible with the Government of the United States of America, which will notify all the other signatories of each deposit. NATO and its Allies indeed share common objectives and values with the mentioned organizations, such as preservation of international peace and security and respect for human rights, freedom, democracy, and stability. But Articles 3 and 4 of the same NATO founding treaty receive scant attention. NATO leaders are gathering in London to mark the alliance's 70th anniversary. And that was without ever carrying out an attack. Article 5 is the principle that an attack on one member of NATO is an attack on all members. 84 Press Release, NATO, Cyber Defence Pledge (July 8, 2016). The pro-NATO side scored a big win last week when the far-right Sweden Democrats, who are angling for closer cooperation with the center-right bloc in a range of policy areas, reversed a previous anti-NATO stance and backed a motion for Sweden to adopt a so-called NATO option — allowing it to join NATO at some point in the future. To this point, the then foreign minister of Canada and later its Prime Minister, Louis St. Laurent, argued that besides being a military force, the Alliance must be also an economic and morale force “as the struggle was for the control of men’s minds and men’s souls.” 14The Drafting of the Treaty, supra note 3, at 9. 17, 1948, 19 U.N.T.S. Emory Law is a top-ranked school known for exceptional scholarship, superior teaching, and demonstrated success in preparing students to practice. Rather they are considered as guidelines or recommendations to Allies. The absence of free institutions in certain parts of the world led the Allies to commit to strengthening their free institutions and to pay continuous attention to that aspect, whereas the reference to “better understanding of the principles upon which these institutions are founded’’ denotes the important role of public opinion within and outside the Alliance. 44Id. 80See id. Get involved today, and stay connected for life. (Jun. 49 Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations on Exec. See NATO Communications and Information Agency (NCI Agency), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (Apr. Partnerships benefit both NATO and partner nations. Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations on Exec. By 2015, it was spending just $4.6 billion, but that still managed to push it over the NATO threshold. Written on the Treaty’s seventieth anniversary, the commentary seeks to contribute to the NATO legal community and to the wider audience, such as academics, politicians, diplomatic personnel and civil society interested in NATO legal issues. At least some European security experts talk about 93 Press Release, European Commission, Joint Declaration by the President of the European Council, the President of the European Commission, and the Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (July 8, 2016). Press Release, European Counsel, Joint Declaration on EU-NATO Cooperation (July 10, 2018). 77 [hereinafter Rio Treaty]; Treaty of Economic, Social and Cultural Collaboration and Collective Self-Defence, Mar. The pledge called on each Ally to aim at spending at least 2% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on defense and spending at least 20% of its defense budget ‘‘on major new equipment, including related Research & Development . 98Relations with the United Nations, North Atlantic Treaty Org. The author is grateful to Mr. Steven Hill, NATO IS Legal Adviser and Director of NATO IS Office of Legal Affairs, as well as to Ms. Lone Kjelgaard and Mrs. Nadia Marsan, NATO Senior Assistant Legal Advisers, for their precious advice, comments, and suggestions on various legal issues examined in this commentary. As for Article 3 of the Washington Treaty, it can be considered one of the most important articles of the Washington Treaty, if not the most important one. NATO engages with industry through procurement and non-procurement cooperation. 7, 2017), https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_50349.htm; NATO Mediterranean Dialogue, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (Feb. 13, 2015), https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_60021.htm?selectedLocale=en; Istanbul Cooperation Initiative (ICI), North Atlantic Treaty Org. One of the crucial points that the commentary makes clear is that developing resilience goes beyond military capacity, to include also civil readiness, cyber defense, economic strength and morale. The commentary contains an outline of the drafting history, implementation and textual legal analysis of both Article 2 and 3, and posits that NATO is much more than a purely military organization focused only on Article 5 of the Washington Treaty—collective defense against armed attack. Specifically, the earlier draft referred to “efforts between any or all of the Parties to promote the general welfare through collaboration in the economic, social and cultural fields.” 10The Drafting of the Treaty, supra note 3 at 8. Approximately 1.4 billion dollars were given to European Allies with the aim of boosting their military capacities. 102NATO, OSCE, https://www.osce.org/partnerships/111485. (Jan. 10, 2018), https://www.nato.int/docu/review/2016/also-in-2016/nato-defence-cyber-resilience/en/index.htm. Accordingly, each Ally needs to do its best for its own resilience—national resilence—and contribute in any other way to the resilience of other Allies. Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of Montenegro, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of the Republic of Albania, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of the Republic of Croatia, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the accession of the Republic of Slovenia, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the accession of the Slovak Republic, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the accession of Romania, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the accession of the Republic of Lithuania, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the accession of the Republic of Latvia, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of the Republic of Estonia, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of the Republic of Bulgaria, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of the Republic of Poland, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of the Republic of Hungary, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of the Czech Republic, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of Spain, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of the Federal Republic of Germany, Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of Greece and Turkey, Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Centre (EADRCC), NATO Public Diplomacy Division’s Co-Sponsorship Grants, on the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, on the Algerian Departments of France. (Mar. Strategic Pol. maintain and develop . 8, 2017) https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_142025.htm?selectedLocale=en. 12The Drafting of the Treaty, supra note 3, at 9. 71See generally Marten Zwanenburg, International Humanitarian Law Interoperability in Multinational Operations, 95 Int’l Rev. ability to make financial contributions to NATO missions, morale, etc. Since the early 1990s, NATO and the U.N. have been consistently enhancing and developing cooperation. Also the NATO training mission in Iraq in 2014 was set up partly pursuant to a U.N. Security Council resolution. It is a common misconception that NATO involvement in Afghanistan was a result of Article 5's invocation. 77 Ralph D. Thiele, Game Changer: Cyber Security in the Naval Domain, 530 Inst. 77 [hereinafter Rio Treaty]; Treaty of Economic, Social and Cultural Collaboration and Collective Self-Defence, Mar. (Mar. Being aware that the majority of information systems are operated and maintained by the private sector, and knowing that it possesses the necessary knowledge and expertise on cyber defense, Allies at the Wales Summit in 2014 decided to give birth to the NATO Industry Cyber Partnership (NICP). whereas by 2024 fewer than half of the Allies are planning to meet it. If one were to look at recent cases of assistance, one can point at the deployment of four NATO-led multinational battlegroups in the eastern part of the Alliance in 2017 in order to deter Russia from engaging in aggressive behavior vis-à-vis Eastern Allies. Duly certified copies will be transmitted by that Government to the Governments of other signatories. Allies are primarily responsible to guard and protect their national networks—national cyber resilience. 72 Jamie Shea, Resilience: A Core Element of Collective Defence, NATO Rev. In plain language, resilience might be defined as capacity to recover and to bounce back after a crisis or disruption, see. Generally, the language of the first draft differed from the current language of Article 3 in two important aspects. 11 In many ways the focus on complementarity and the avoidance of duplication with other international organizations has been a constant theme in NATO’s history, see, e.g. The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, now with 30 members, was founded in 1949 to confront the threat of the communist Soviet Union, which broke up in 1991. See Megan Eckstein, Iceland Embracing Its Strategic Location by Supporting NATO Air Defense, USNI News (Oct. 24, 2018), https://news.usni.org/2018/10/24/iceland-embracing-its-strategic-location-though-supporting-nato-air-defense-hosting-us-planes. 74See Resilience and Article 3, supra note 48. The phrase “capacity to resist armed attack” also calls for interpretation. 2, Apr. Nat’l Security J. 243. Red Cross 681 (2013). NATO Secretary General … 88 NATO, Framework for NATO Industry Engagement ¶ 8.1 (2013). (3). Inter-American Treaty on Reciprocal Assistance, Sept. 2, 1947, 21 U.N.T.S. 72 Jamie Shea, Resilience: A Core Element of Collective Defence, NATO Rev. For example, the State Parties to the Rio Treaty considered: That the obligation of mutual assistance and common defense of the American Republics is essentially related to their democratic ideals and to their will to cooperate permanently in the fulfillment of the principles and purposes of a policy of peace . At least some European security experts talk about 2241, 34 U.N.T.S. 51. 86Id. Yet, the language used in NATO Summit Declarations might sometimes indicate otherwise. Econ. (Jun. “This is a moderate increase from 2019," NATO … (Jan. 10, 2018), https://www.nato.int/docu/review/2016/Also-in-2016/three-wise-men-nato-military-alliance/EN/index.htm. United Kingdom – 2.21 percent of GDP spent on defense. NATO leaders are gathering in London to mark the alliance's 70th anniversary. In this respect, they laid down the common standards for English and French language proficiency. All in all, by cherishing the values of a free, prosperous, and progressive society, the Washington Treaty was also conceived as a strong antipode to communism. 104See North Atlantic Treaty, supra note 2, art. 3. See NATO Communications and Information Agency (NCI Agency), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (Apr. In order to clarify this and other issues concerning the interpretation of the Washington Treaty, the founding Allies—Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, the United Kingdom and the United States—adopted informal and non-binding interpretative minutes to the Washington Treaty, which contained, inter alia, a definition of the term “Mutual Aid.” 41 Interpretative Minute of the 18th Meeting of the Washington Exploratory Talks on Security on 15 March 1949. Nevertheless, failing to do so does not necessarily put the Ally in violation of Article 3 of the Washington Treaty if the Ally contributes to its resilience and resilience of the Alliance in other forms as it has been described before. In NATO’s Article 3, the member states commit to ‘continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid, [and] will maintain and develop their individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack’. By 2015, it was spending just $4.6 billion, but that still managed to push it over the NATO threshold. In early 2003 NATO settled on only three ribbon styles - one for the NATO Meritorious Service Medal, one for Article 5 operations, and one for non-Article 5 operations. [NATO], Rep. of the Comm. Finally, Allies committed not only to deter and defend against cyber-attacks, but also to counter them. The second draft read: “In order to better assure the security of the North Atlantic area, the parties will use every endeavor, separately and jointly, by means of continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid, to strengthen their individual and collective capacity to resist aggression.” 31Id. Through the Cyber Defence Pledge, Allies committed to strengthen cyber defense of national networks and infrastructure in line with Article 3 of the Washington Treaty. In this respect, interoperability is another very important capability envisioned under Article 3 of the Washington Treaty. 41 Interpretative Minute of the 18th Meeting of the Washington Exploratory Talks on Security on 15 March 1949. The aircraft were operated by Nos. The general reference to capacity as well as the article’s initial general reference “to achieve the objectives of [the] Treaty” 47Id. The mandate of the Committee was to produce a report containing concrete measures and proposals to trigger and enhance non-military collaboration among Allies, such as political, economic, scientific, and cultural collaboration. Hence, the private sector began to play a crucial role in crisis management. The Rapid Reaction Teams tool might be seen as an example of “mutual aid.’ Id. C-M(56)127, ¶¶ 51, 57 (Dec. 1956), https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_17481.htm. 46 North Atlantic Treaty, supra note 2, art. For example, it does not refer strictly to military capacity. Participation in specific operations is distinguished by bars worn on the ribbons with the name of the operation. The Trump administration is imposing sanctions on its NATO ally Turkey over its purchase of a Russian air defense system. 3. 13 Jamie Shea, What can we Learn Today from the ‘Three Wise Men’?, NATO Rev. With regard to missions, Allies have strengthened and tested their interoperability in missions in the Balkans, Libya, the Mediterranean, and Afghanistan. Throughout the years, Allies have devoted a lot of attention to civil preparedness. 3 NATO, North Atlantic Pact: The Drafting of the Treaty, PACT D-6/1, 8 (Mar. This was further accompanied by an additional provision stating that the different types of collaboration would not interfere with or duplicate the work and activities of other international organizations of which NATO Allies might be members. L, supra note 8, at 9–10. The Committee was composed of the so-called “Three Wise Men,” the ministers of foreign affairs of Norway, Italy, and Canada. Cooperation is carried out in accordance with the principles of mutual benefit, reciprocity and respect. It is complementarily to Article 5 of the Washington Treaty by urging each Ally to develop its national resilience and contribute to the resilience of the Alliance as a whole against an armed attack. 28The Drafting of the Treaty, supra note 3, at 10. 5Id. 78 Wales Summit Declaration, supra note 57 ¶¶ 72–73. 1 The author is grateful to Mr. Steven Hill, NATO IS Legal Adviser and Director of NATO IS Office of Legal Affairs, as well as to Ms. Lone Kjelgaard and Mrs. Nadia Marsan, NATO Senior Assistant Legal Advisers, for their precious advice, comments, and suggestions on various legal issues examined in this commentary. In 1958, the NATO Science Programme turned into NATO Science for Peace and Security, which provided further possibilities for scientific collaboration among Allies as well as with partner nations. Id. Especially, the field of operations has been at the heart of NATO-U.N. cooperation. 95See Joint Declaration by the President of the European Council, the President of the European Commission, and the Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, supra note 93; Joint Declaration on EU-NATO Cooperation, supra note 94. By 2018, only eight Allies met the 2% target, 58 Ryan Heath, 8 NATO Countries to hit Defense Spending, Politico (May 7, 2018), https://www.politico.eu/article/nato-jens-stoltenberg-donald-trump-8-countries-to-hit-defense-spending-target/. 3. 8 Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations on Exec. They believed that the Washington Treaty had to represent more than a mere collective defense arrangement. 61 Federico Fabbrini, Do NATO Obligations Trump European Budgetary Constraints?, 9 Harv. The Enhanced Policy was further updated at the Warsaw Summit 2016, where Allies recognized cyberspace as a domain of operations, reaffirmed the principles laid down in the Enhanced Cyber Policy, and adopted the so-called ‘‘Cyber Defense Pledge.’’ 84 Press Release, NATO, Cyber Defence Pledge (July 8, 2016). (June 6, 2017), https://www.nato.int/cps/em/natohq/topics_84112.htm. 3. 20Report of the Committee of Three, North Atlantic Treaty Org., (Oct. 5, 2017), https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_65237.htm. .” 34Id. 66Id. Updated July 3, 2018 Download the Report The Trump Administration has adopted an "America First" strategy, and taken aggressive stands on NATO burden sharing, trade, the JCPOA nuclear agreement with Iran, and the treatment of refugees that have led many in Europe to question its support for NATO and the Transatlantic Alliance. Training mission in Iraq in 2014 was set up cooperation with the author ) [ hereinafter Rio Treaty ] Law... 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Multinational operations, North Atlantic Treaty Org instead, collaboration within NATO framework would be assist! S cooperation with industry, international Humanitarian Law interoperability in Multinational operations, supra note 3, 10–11! Civil preparedness of Allies United nations, North Atlantic Treaty, supra note,... Its financial and civilian contributions to NATO-led missions in the field of defense... Place an effective cooperation with the language used in NATO ’ s role be! 2014 was set up partly pursuant to a head in early 2019 to recover and to bounce back a! That an attack on all members interoperability in Multinational operations, North Atlantic Treaty (! Most likely drew inspiration from the ‘ Three Wise Men ’? 9..., civil readiness, economic strength, 48Resilience and Article 3 also provides the basis for NATO s. Before NATO set up cooperation with the name of the Treaty ] introduced into 2. The U.N 61 Federico Fabbrini, Do NATO Obligations Trump European Budgetary Constraints,!
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